Ancient Greek Philosophy

Socrates: The Gadfly of Athens

The Socratic Revolution

Socrates of Athens (470-399 BCE) revolutionised philosophy by shifting focus from natural speculation to ethical inquiry whilst developing new methods of investigation that emphasised self-knowledge and moral improvement. Although he wrote nothing himself, his influence on subsequent philosophy was profound and enduring, transmitted primarily through the writings of his student Plato.

The Socratic approach to philosophy emphasised the importance of examining one's life and beliefs through systematic questioning. His famous declaration that "the unexamined life is not worth living" established the principle that philosophical inquiry is essential to human flourishing rather than merely an intellectual exercise.

The Socratic Method

Socrates developed a distinctive method of philosophical investigation known as elenchus or the Socratic method, which involved systematic questioning designed to expose the contradictions and inadequacies in commonly held beliefs. Through careful interrogation, Socrates demonstrated that most people could not adequately defend their fundamental convictions about justice, courage, piety, or other important values.

This method served both critical and constructive purposes: negatively, it cleared away false beliefs and pretensions to knowledge; positively, it encouraged intellectual humility and the recognition that true wisdom begins with acknowledging one's ignorance. The Socratic method remains fundamental to education and philosophical inquiry today.

Socratic Ethics and Intellectualism

Socrates developed influential theories about the relationship between knowledge and virtue, arguing that all wrongdoing stems from ignorance and that knowledge of good automatically leads to virtuous action. This "moral intellectualism" suggested that ethical problems could be solved through intellectual inquiry and that virtue could be taught through philosophical education.

Socratic ethics emphasised the supreme importance of caring for one's soul rather than external goods like wealth, power, or reputation. His conviction that virtue is the only true good and that moral knowledge is the most important kind of learning influenced virtually all subsequent ethical theory whilst challenging conventional values and priorities.

The Trial and Death of Socrates

Socrates's philosophical activities eventually led to his trial and execution in 399 BCE on charges of corrupting the youth and impiety. His refusal to compromise his principles or cease his philosophical mission, even when offered the opportunity to escape, demonstrated the ultimate commitment of a philosopher to the pursuit of truth and moral integrity.

The death of Socrates became a defining moment in the history of philosophy, establishing the image of the philosopher as someone willing to die for truth and principle. This martyrdom provided powerful testimony to the transformative power of philosophical conviction whilst inspiring subsequent generations of thinkers to continue the Socratic mission.

Socratic Paradoxes

• Socratic Ignorance: "I know that I know nothing"
• Unity of Virtues: All virtues are forms of knowledge
• No One Does Wrong Willingly: All wrongdoing stems from ignorance
• Virtue is Knowledge: Knowing good automatically leads to doing good

Plato: The Architect of Western Philosophy

The Platonic System

Plato (428-348 BCE) created the first comprehensive philosophical system in Western thought, developing sophisticated theories about reality, knowledge, politics, and human nature that would influence virtually every subsequent philosophical tradition. His Academy in Athens, founded around 387 BCE, became the prototype for universities and centres of higher learning throughout the Western world.

Plato's philosophy emerged from his attempt to defend Socratic teachings against the relativism of the Sophists whilst providing positive theories that could explain the possibility of objective knowledge and moral truth. His solutions involved developing complex metaphysical and epistemological theories that remain central to philosophical discussion today.

The Theory of Forms

Plato's most distinctive and influential contribution was the Theory of Forms, which posited the existence of perfect, eternal, and unchanging realities that serve as models for the imperfect, changing things we experience through the senses. According to this theory, mathematical objects like triangles and moral concepts like justice exist as perfect Forms in a transcendent realm accessible only through rational thought.

The Theory of Forms provided solutions to several philosophical problems: it explained how objective knowledge is possible despite the relativism of sense experience, how universal concepts can apply to particular things, and how moral standards can be objective despite cultural disagreements. This metaphysical foundation influenced virtually all subsequent Western philosophy.

The Allegory of the Cave

Plato's Allegory of the Cave, presented in the Republic, provided a powerful metaphor for the human condition and the educational process that leads to philosophical enlightenment. The allegory depicts prisoners chained in a cave who mistake shadows on the wall for reality until one escapes and discovers the true world illuminated by the sun.

This allegory illustrated Plato's theory of knowledge, which distinguished between different levels of cognitive awareness, from imagination through belief and reasoning to direct intellectual intuition of the Forms. The philosopher's role is to help others escape the cave of illusion and achieve genuine knowledge of reality.

Political Philosophy and the Ideal State

In the Republic, Plato developed the first systematic political philosophy, describing an ideal state that would promote justice and human flourishing. His ideal state featured a rigid class system with philosopher-kings ruling, guardians providing defence, and producers meeting material needs, each class contributing according to their natural abilities and training.

Platonic political theory emphasised the importance of education, the unity of the state, and the subordination of individual interests to the common good. Whilst his specific proposals have been criticised as authoritarian, his emphasis on the moral purpose of government and the importance of political education has influenced democratic theory and practice.

Key Platonic Concepts

• World of Forms: Perfect, eternal realm of true reality
• Philosopher-King: Ruler who combines wisdom with power
• Tripartite Soul: Reason, spirit, and appetite in human nature
• Recollection: Learning as remembering eternal truths
• Dialectic: Method of rational investigation leading to truth

Aristotle: The Universal Genius

Aristotelian Philosophy

Aristotle (384-322 BCE), Plato's most brilliant student, developed the most comprehensive and influential philosophical system in ancient thought, making fundamental contributions to logic, metaphysics, ethics, politics, biology, and literary theory. His Lyceum in Athens rivalled Plato's Academy as a centre of learning whilst his writings provided the foundation for medieval and Renaissance education.

Aristotelian philosophy was characterised by empirical observation, systematic classification, and practical wisdom. Unlike Plato's emphasis on transcendent Forms, Aristotle grounded his theories in careful study of the natural world whilst developing logical tools for rigorous investigation and argument.

Logic and Scientific Method

Aristotle's greatest contribution may have been his development of formal logic, creating the first systematic account of valid reasoning and argument. His syllogistic logic provided rules for determining when conclusions follow necessarily from premises whilst his broader logical works established principles for scientific investigation and proof.

The Aristotelian logical system dominated Western thought for over two thousand years, establishing patterns of reasoning that remain fundamental to education and scholarship. His emphasis on empirical observation combined with logical rigour provided the methodological foundation for later scientific development.

Metaphysics and the Four Causes

Aristotelian metaphysics rejected Plato's separate world of Forms in favour of a theory that located universal principles within particular things. His theory of the Four Causes provided a comprehensive framework for understanding change and explanation, distinguishing material, formal, efficient, and final causes as different aspects of complete understanding.

This metaphysical system emphasised the purposive nature of reality, arguing that natural things have inherent tendencies towards specific goals or ends (telos). This teleological understanding of nature influenced scientific thinking until the modern period whilst continuing to influence contemporary discussions of biology and environmental ethics.

Ethics and the Good Life

The Nicomachean Ethics presented the most influential account of virtue ethics in Western philosophy, arguing that human flourishing (eudaimonia) consists in the actualisation of human excellence through virtuous activity. Aristotelian ethics emphasised character development, practical wisdom, and the importance of habituation in moral education.

Aristotle distinguished between intellectual and moral virtues, arguing that moral virtues represent means between extremes of excess and deficiency. His doctrine of the mean provided practical guidance for ethical decision-making whilst his emphasis on friendship and community highlighted the social dimensions of human flourishing.

Political Theory

Aristotelian political theory, developed in the Politics, analysed different forms of government whilst arguing that humans are naturally political animals who can achieve their full potential only within properly organised communities. His classification of constitutions and analysis of their strengths and weaknesses influenced political thought throughout the medieval and modern periods.

Aristotle's political philosophy emphasised the importance of the rule of law, the benefits of mixed government, and the need for constitutional stability. His defence of private property and criticism of radical equality provided influential arguments against extreme forms of collectivism whilst his analysis of citizenship and political participation informed democratic theory.

Aristotelian Contributions

• Syllogistic Logic: First systematic account of valid reasoning
• Four Causes: Material, formal, efficient, and final explanation
• Virtue Ethics: Character-based approach to moral philosophy
• Golden Mean: Virtue as balance between extremes
• Classification Systems: Systematic organisation of knowledge

Hellenistic Philosophy: Practical Wisdom for Troubled Times

The Hellenistic Context

The Hellenistic period, beginning with Alexander the Great's conquests, created a new cultural context that transformed philosophical priorities and methods. The breakdown of traditional political structures and the creation of vast cosmopolitan kingdoms encouraged philosophical schools that emphasised personal tranquillity, practical guidance, and universal human nature rather than abstract metaphysical speculation.

Hellenistic philosophy responded to the challenges of living in an uncertain world where traditional sources of meaning and security had been disrupted. The major schools developed therapeutic approaches to philosophy that promised peace of mind and practical wisdom for navigating the complexities of cosmopolitan life.

Epicureanism: The Garden of Pleasure

Epicurus (341-270 BCE) established a philosophical school that advocated the pursuit of pleasure as the highest good whilst developing sophisticated theories about ethics, physics, and the nature of human happiness. The Garden, his community in Athens, included women and slaves as equal participants, demonstrating radical egalitarian principles.

Epicurean philosophy distinguished between kinetic pleasures (active enjoyments) and katastematic pleasures (states of tranquillity), arguing that true happiness consists in the absence of pain (aponia) and anxiety (ataraxia) rather than positive gratification. This refined hedonism emphasised friendship, intellectual pleasure, and simple living as paths to genuine happiness.

Stoicism: The Discipline of Virtue

Stoicism, founded by Zeno of Citium (334-262 BCE), became the most influential Hellenistic philosophy, providing ethical guidance that appealed to both Greek intellectuals and Roman practical leaders. Stoic philosophy emphasised virtue as the only true good whilst teaching acceptance of fate and focus on what lies within human control.

Stoic ethics taught that emotions result from false judgements about external things and that wisdom consists in achieving apatheia (freedom from destructive passions) through correct understanding of human nature and cosmic order. This philosophical therapy provided practical techniques for achieving tranquillity whilst maintaining moral commitment.

Major Hellenistic Schools

• Epicureanism: Pursuit of refined pleasure and ataraxia (tranquillity)
• Stoicism: Virtue as the only good; acceptance of cosmic fate
• Scepticism: Suspension of judgement to achieve peace of mind
• Cynicism: Radical simplicity and rejection of social conventions

Scepticism: The Art of Doubt

Sceptical philosophy, developed by Pyrrho (c. 360-270 BCE) and systematised by later figures like Sextus Empiricus, questioned the possibility of certain knowledge whilst advocating suspension of judgement (epoché) as the path to tranquillity. Sceptics argued that conflicting appearances and arguments about any topic make definitive knowledge impossible.

Sceptical philosophy provided influential critiques of dogmatic philosophical systems whilst developing sophisticated arguments about the nature of knowledge and justification. The sceptical challenge forced other philosophers to develop more rigorous approaches to epistemology whilst contributing to the development of scientific methodology.

Cynicism: Radical Simplicity

Cynic philosophy, exemplified by Diogenes of Sinope (c. 412-323 BCE), advocated radical simplicity, self-sufficiency, and rejection of social conventions as the path to freedom and happiness. Cynics argued that most human suffering results from attachment to unnecessary desires and artificial social distinctions.

Cynic practice involved deliberate poverty, shameless behaviour, and provocative criticism of conventional values. This philosophical lifestyle challenged social norms whilst demonstrating alternative ways of understanding happiness and human nature that influenced later Christian monasticism and modern countercultural movements.

"The unexamined life is not worth living, but the examined life is very difficult to live." - Modern interpretation of Socratic wisdom

Roman Contributions and Synthesis

Roman Philosophical Adaptation

Roman thinkers adapted Greek philosophical traditions to Roman practical concerns and legal thinking, creating influential syntheses that emphasised moral guidance and political wisdom. Figures like Cicero, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius developed accessible accounts of philosophical teachings whilst demonstrating their relevance to public life and personal conduct.

Roman philosophy was characterised by practical orientation, moral seriousness, and integration with legal and political thinking. Roman adaptations of Greek philosophy made these teachings available to broader audiences whilst demonstrating their continued relevance for addressing practical challenges.

Cicero: The Great Synthesiser

Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BCE) provided influential accounts of Greek philosophical schools whilst developing original theories about natural law, just war, and the relationship between philosophy and rhetoric. His dialogues and treatises made Greek philosophy accessible to Roman audiences whilst influencing medieval and Renaissance thought.

Ciceronian natural law theory argued that universal moral principles could be discovered through reason and that these principles provided the foundation for just legislation and political order. This synthesis of philosophy and law profoundly influenced Christian thought and modern theories of human rights.

Seneca and Practical Stoicism

Lucius Annaeus Seneca (4 BCE-65 CE) developed practical applications of Stoic philosophy whilst serving as advisor to Emperor Nero and pursuing a successful political career. His letters and essays provided accessible guidance for applying philosophical principles to daily challenges whilst addressing the tensions between philosophical ideals and practical necessities.

Senecan Stoicism emphasised the therapeutic function of philosophy whilst maintaining commitment to moral principles under difficult circumstances. His writings provided influential models for combining philosophical reflection with active engagement in public affairs.

Marcus Aurelius: The Philosopher-Emperor

Marcus Aurelius (121-180 CE), the only philosopher-king in actual history, demonstrated the practical application of Stoic principles whilst governing the Roman Empire. His Meditations provided intimate reflections on philosophical living whilst addressing the challenges of power, responsibility, and mortality.

The Meditations illustrated the personal benefits of philosophical practice whilst showing how abstract principles could guide concrete decisions. Marcus Aurelius's example influenced subsequent thinking about the relationship between wisdom and power whilst providing a model for philosophical integrity under pressure.

Neoplatonism and Late Antiquity

The Neoplatonic Synthesis

Neoplatonism, founded by Plotinus (204-270 CE), created the last great philosophical system of antiquity by synthesising Platonic metaphysics with elements from Aristotelian and Stoic thought. This tradition provided sophisticated theories about the nature of reality, consciousness, and spiritual development that influenced both Christian and Islamic philosophy.

Neoplatonic philosophy emphasised the transcendence of the One (the ultimate principle of reality) whilst developing detailed accounts of the hierarchical structure of reality and the soul's journey towards union with the divine. This mystical dimension provided alternatives to purely rational approaches to philosophical questions.

Plotinus and the Enneads

Plotinus developed the most sophisticated metaphysical system in late antiquity, describing reality as emanating from the One through progressively lower levels of being including Intelligence (Nous) and Soul (Psyche). His theory provided a framework for understanding the relationship between unity and multiplicity whilst explaining how individual souls could achieve mystical union with ultimate reality.

Plotinian philosophy combined rigorous metaphysical analysis with spiritual practice, arguing that philosophical understanding could lead to direct experience of transcendent reality. This combination of rational investigation and mystical aspiration influenced both philosophical and religious traditions throughout the medieval period.

Christian Appropriation and Transformation

Christian thinkers, particularly the Church Fathers, adapted Greek philosophical methods and concepts to develop sophisticated accounts of Christian doctrine whilst defending Christianity against pagan criticism. Figures like Augustine demonstrated how philosophical reasoning could support religious faith whilst transforming philosophical concepts for theological purposes.

This appropriation preserved Greek philosophical traditions whilst transforming them for new purposes. Christian philosophy maintained emphasis on rational investigation whilst subordinating philosophical inquiry to religious authority and revealed truth.

Influence on Later Traditions

• Medieval Philosophy: Aristotelian and Platonic synthesis with Christianity and Islam
• Renaissance Humanism: Recovery of classical texts and methods
• Modern Science: Empirical observation and logical analysis
• Political Theory: Natural law, constitutionalism, and democratic theory
• Ethics: Virtue theory, natural law, and moral reasoning

Major Themes and Contributions

Rationality and Critical Thinking

Ancient Greek philosophy established rationality as the primary method for investigating fundamental questions about reality, knowledge, and value. The development of logical argumentation, systematic inquiry, and critical analysis provided tools that remain essential to intellectual life whilst challenging the authority of tradition and revealed truth.

Greek emphasis on giving reasons for beliefs and subjecting all claims to critical scrutiny created intellectual standards that transformed human understanding of knowledge and justification. This critical spirit encouraged questioning of assumptions and authorities that had previously been accepted without examination.

Ethics and the Good Life

Greek philosophers made fundamental contributions to ethical theory by developing systematic accounts of virtue, happiness, and moral obligation that continue to influence contemporary moral philosophy. The various schools provided competing visions of human flourishing whilst establishing the importance of character, practical wisdom, and moral education.

Greek ethical theories addressed enduring questions about the relationship between individual happiness and moral obligation, the nature of virtue and its acquisition, and the role of external goods in human flourishing. These inquiries established patterns of moral reasoning that remain influential today.

Political Philosophy and Justice

Ancient Greek thinkers created the discipline of political philosophy by developing systematic theories about justice, the best form of government, and the relationship between individual and community. Their analyses of different political systems and their defence of particular forms of government provided foundations for subsequent political theory.

Greek political philosophy addressed fundamental questions about political obligation, the source of political authority, and the proper goals of government that continue to challenge contemporary political thinkers. The Greek emphasis on citizenship, participation, and constitutional government influenced the development of democratic theory and practice.

Metaphysics and the Nature of Reality

Greek philosophers established metaphysics as a distinct discipline by developing systematic theories about the fundamental nature of reality, the relationship between appearance and reality, and the principles that govern change and permanence. Their investigations provided conceptual frameworks that continue to influence philosophical and scientific thinking.

Greek metaphysical theories addressed enduring questions about the relationship between mind and body, the nature of causation, and the existence of universal principles that remain central to philosophical inquiry. These investigations established patterns of analysis that continue to guide metaphysical research.

Methods and Approaches

Dialectical Reasoning

Greek philosophers developed sophisticated methods of dialectical reasoning that involved the systematic examination of opposing arguments to arrive at truth or greater understanding. This approach, exemplified in Platonic dialogues and Aristotelian investigations, provided models for rigorous intellectual inquiry that continue to influence education and scholarship.

Dialectical method emphasised the importance of considering multiple perspectives, identifying hidden assumptions, and testing beliefs against counterarguments. This approach fostered intellectual humility whilst encouraging the development of more sophisticated and defensible positions.

Systematic Classification

Aristotelian philosophy introduced systematic approaches to classification and organisation that influenced the development of sciences and scholarly disciplines. The Aristotelian emphasis on defining terms precisely, identifying essential characteristics, and organising knowledge into coherent systems provided methodological foundations for intellectual progress.

These systematic approaches demonstrated the importance of clear definitions, logical organisation, and comprehensive investigation in achieving genuine understanding. The Aristotelian model of systematic inquiry influenced educational practice throughout the medieval and Renaissance periods.

Empirical Observation

Greek philosophers, particularly Aristotle, emphasised the importance of careful observation in understanding natural phenomena whilst recognising the limitations of sensory experience. This balance between empirical investigation and rational analysis provided methodological foundations for later scientific development.

The Greek integration of observation and reasoning demonstrated that genuine knowledge requires both careful attention to evidence and rigorous logical analysis. This methodological synthesis continues to influence scientific research and philosophical investigation.

Philosophical Methods Established by Greeks:

Philosophical Methods Established by Greeks

• Socratic Questioning: Systematic interrogation to expose assumptions
• Logical Analysis: Rigorous argumentation and proof
• Dialectical Investigation: Examination of opposing positions
• Systematic Classification: Organised categorisation of knowledge
• Empirical Observation: Careful attention to sensory evidence

Legacy and Continuing Influence

Medieval Synthesis

Ancient Greek philosophy profoundly influenced medieval thought through its incorporation into Christian, Islamic, and Jewish intellectual traditions. Medieval scholars developed sophisticated syntheses that combined Greek rational methods with religious revelation whilst preserving and transmitting classical texts for future generations.

The medieval appropriation of Greek philosophy demonstrated the continuing relevance of ancient insights whilst showing how philosophical methods could be adapted to serve different cultural and religious purposes. This synthesis preserved classical learning whilst transforming it for new contexts.

Renaissance Recovery

The Renaissance saw renewed interest in original Greek philosophical texts and methods, contributing to the development of humanism and the scientific revolution. Renaissance scholars emphasised the importance of returning to classical sources whilst developing new applications of ancient insights to contemporary challenges.

This recovery of classical philosophy encouraged critical examination of medieval authorities whilst providing alternative models for understanding human nature, political organisation, and natural phenomena. The Renaissance synthesis of classical and modern insights laid foundations for subsequent intellectual development.

Modern Philosophical Development

Modern philosophy emerged partly through dialogue with ancient Greek traditions, both building upon and reacting against classical insights. Figures like Descartes, Hume, and Kant developed new philosophical systems whilst addressing problems and questions first articulated by ancient Greek thinkers.

The continuing engagement with Greek philosophy demonstrates the enduring relevance of ancient insights whilst showing how philosophical problems transcend particular historical periods. Contemporary philosophers continue to find inspiration and challenge in ancient Greek texts whilst developing new approaches to perennial questions.

Contemporary Relevance

Ancient Greek philosophy remains relevant to contemporary intellectual life through its contributions to ethics, political theory, logic, and metaphysics. The methods of rational inquiry, critical analysis, and systematic investigation pioneered by Greek philosophers continue to provide essential tools for addressing complex modern challenges.

Contemporary applications of Greek philosophy appear in diverse fields including bioethics, environmental policy, democratic theory, and educational practice. The ancient Greek emphasis on wisdom, virtue, and human flourishing provides valuable perspectives for addressing modern problems whilst maintaining connection to humanity's greatest intellectual achievements.

Continuing Impact on Modern Thought

• Scientific Method: Empirical observation combined with logical analysis
• Democratic Theory: Concepts of citizenship, participation, and constitutional government
• Educational Practice: Socratic method and liberal arts curriculum
• Medical Ethics: Hippocratic principles and virtue-based approaches
• Environmental Ethics: Aristotelian concepts of natural purposes and flourishing

Conclusion

Ancient Greek philosophy represents one of humanity's greatest intellectual achievements, establishing the foundations for rational inquiry, critical thinking, and systematic investigation that continue to shape contemporary thought. From the revolutionary naturalism of the Presocratics through the comprehensive systems of Plato and Aristotle to the practical wisdom of the Hellenistic schools, Greek philosophers addressed fundamental questions about reality, knowledge, ethics, and human nature with sophistication and insight that remain impressive today.

The Greek philosophical revolution transformed human understanding by introducing reason as the primary method for investigating truth whilst developing logical and methodological tools that remain essential to intellectual progress. This intellectual transformation laid the foundations for science, mathematics, political theory, and ethics whilst establishing patterns of critical thinking that continue to guide education and scholarship.

The ethical contributions of ancient Greek philosophy remain particularly relevant in our contemporary world, where questions about virtue, happiness, justice, and the good life continue to challenge individuals and societies. The competing visions of human flourishing developed by different Greek schools provide valuable resources for addressing modern moral challenges whilst maintaining connection to humanity's deepest wisdom traditions.

"All philosophy is a footnote to Plato." - Alfred North Whitehead

The political philosophy developed by Greek thinkers continues to influence contemporary democratic theory and practice through its analysis of citizenship, constitutional government, and political participation. The Greek emphasis on the relationship between individual flourishing and community health provides important perspectives for addressing modern challenges of social organisation and political legitimacy.

The methodological contributions of ancient Greek philosophy established intellectual standards and practices that remain central to academic disciplines throughout the humanities and sciences. The Greek development of logical analysis, systematic classification, and dialectical reasoning provided tools that continue to guide research and education whilst fostering the critical thinking skills essential for democratic participation.

Perhaps most importantly, ancient Greek philosophy demonstrated the transformative power of rational inquiry and the importance of intellectual courage in pursuing truth regardless of conventional opinion or political pressure. The example of figures like Socrates, who preferred death to intellectual compromise, continues to inspire contemporary thinkers to maintain intellectual integrity whilst pursuing wisdom for its own sake.

The legacy of ancient Greek philosophy extends far beyond academic institutions to influence virtually every aspect of modern intellectual life. The Greek conviction that the unexamined life is not worth living continues to challenge individuals to reflect critically on their beliefs and values whilst the Greek development of rational methods provides tools for addressing the complex challenges facing contemporary society.

In our current era of rapid technological change and global challenges, the wisdom of ancient Greek philosophers remains remarkably relevant. Their insights into human nature, political organisation, ethical reasoning, and the pursuit of knowledge provide valuable guidance for navigating contemporary difficulties whilst maintaining connection to the intellectual traditions that have shaped Western civilisation.

The enduring influence of ancient Greek philosophy testifies to the fundamental importance of the questions they addressed and the sophistication of their methods for pursuing answers. As we face new challenges that require both technical expertise and wisdom about human values and purposes, the ancient Greek tradition of philosophical inquiry remains an essential resource for understanding ourselves and our world whilst striving for the wisdom and virtue that constitute genuine human flourishing.