Where civilization
first took root.

Mesopotamia: The Land Between the Rivers

Mesopotamia: The Land Between the Rivers Mesopotamia was one of the earliest centres of civilisation in human history. The name Mesopotamia comes from Greek words meaning "the land between the rivers" and refers mainly to the fertile region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Much of ancient Mesopotamia lay within modern-day Iraq, although parts of the civilisation also extended into areas that are now Syria, Turkey, Iran and Kuwait. The rivers were essential to the development of Mesopotamian civilisation. Their waters provided irrigation for crops in a region where rainfall was often limited. Farmers constructed canals, ditches and reservoirs to control the movement of water across the land. These irrigation systems allowed communities to produce large quantities of grain and supported the growth of towns and cities. The Rise of the First Cities By around the fourth millennium BC, large settlements were developing in southern Mesopotamia. Some of these settlements became the world's earliest cities. Among the most important were Uruk, Ur, Eridu, Lagash and Nippur. Uruk became one of the largest and most influential early cities. It contained monumental temples, workshops, houses and defensive walls. The growth of cities encouraged the development of specialised occupations. Instead of everyone working as farmers, some people became craftsmen, merchants, builders, soldiers, priests or administrators. Mesopotamian cities were often independent political communities known as city-states. Each city-state controlled the surrounding farmland and settlements and usually had its own ruler, religious traditions and patron deity. The Sumerians The Sumerians were among the earliest peoples to establish an advanced urban civilisation in southern Mesopotamia. Their civilisation flourished during the fourth and third millennia BC. The Sumerians built impressive cities, developed complex systems of government and made important advances in writing, mathematics, architecture and agriculture. Sumerian society was organised around cities and temples. Large temple complexes controlled land, stored agricultural produce and employed workers. Priests played an important role because religion was closely connected with government and everyday life. Later, powerful kings increasingly controlled the Sumerian city-states. These rulers commanded armies, organised building projects and competed with neighbouring cities for land, water and trade routes. The Invention of Writing One of Mesopotamia's greatest achievements was the development of writing. The earliest writing appeared in southern Mesopotamia during the late fourth millennium BC. At first, simple symbols were used to record goods, livestock and agricultural products. Over time these symbols developed into a writing system known as cuneiform. Scribes created cuneiform characters by pressing a reed stylus into wet clay tablets. The wedge-shaped marks could represent words, ideas and sounds. Cuneiform was used for thousands of years. It recorded business transactions, tax payments, legal agreements, religious ceremonies, royal inscriptions, scientific observations and works of literature. Thousands of clay tablets have survived, providing historians with detailed information about Mesopotamian civilisation. Religion and the Gods Religion was central to Mesopotamian life. The people of Mesopotamia believed that many different gods controlled natural forces and aspects of human existence. Each city usually had a patron god or goddess who was believed to protect the community. Important Mesopotamian deities included Anu, the god of the heavens, Enlil, associated with wind and authority, Enki, the god of wisdom and fresh water, Inanna or Ishtar, the goddess of love and war, and Utu or Shamash, the sun god and god of justice. Mesopotamians believed that maintaining the favour of the gods was essential for prosperity. Priests performed ceremonies and presented offerings of food, drink and valuable objects in temples. Ziggurats and Temples Many Mesopotamian cities contained enormous temple structures known as ziggurats. A ziggurat was a stepped platform constructed mainly from mud bricks. A temple dedicated to a city's patron deity usually stood at or near its summit. Ziggurats dominated the skylines of major cities and demonstrated the importance of religion. They also symbolised the wealth and political power of the rulers who ordered their construction. One of the best-known examples is the Great Ziggurat of Ur, which was constructed during the reign of King Ur-Nammu around the twenty-first century BC. Kings and Government Mesopotamian rulers were responsible for maintaining order, defending their cities and ensuring the prosperity of their subjects. Kings commanded armies, supervised irrigation systems and organised the construction of temples, walls and palaces. Royal authority was closely connected with religion. Kings often claimed that the gods had chosen them to rule. Some rulers presented themselves as protectors of justice and guardians of the weak. Government became increasingly sophisticated as kingdoms expanded. Officials collected taxes, managed land, supervised workers and recorded economic activity on clay tablets. The Akkadian Empire During the twenty-fourth century BC, a ruler named Sargon of Akkad conquered many Sumerian city-states and established one of the world's earliest large territorial empires. The Akkadian Empire united much of Mesopotamia under a single dynasty. Sargon created a powerful military system and appointed loyal officials to govern conquered territories. His successors continued to expand Akkadian influence across the region. The Akkadian language became increasingly important and eventually replaced Sumerian as the main spoken language of Mesopotamia. However, Sumerian continued to be used for religious, literary and scholarly purposes for centuries. The Third Dynasty of Ur After the decline of the Akkadian Empire, political power eventually returned to southern Mesopotamia. Around 2112 BC, Ur-Nammu founded what became known as the Third Dynasty of Ur. The rulers of Ur controlled a large and highly organised state. Their government maintained detailed records of agriculture, trade, labour and taxation. Thousands of administrative tablets from this period have survived. Ur-Nammu is also associated with one of the earliest known written law codes. His laws dealt with crimes, property disputes, marriage and compensation. Babylon Babylon became one of the most famous cities in the ancient world. It rose to prominence during the early second millennium BC and became the centre of an important kingdom under King Hammurabi. Hammurabi ruled during the eighteenth century BC and conquered much of Mesopotamia. He is particularly famous for the collection of laws known as the Code of Hammurabi. The code dealt with subjects including trade, property, marriage, inheritance, agriculture, wages and criminal offences. The laws demonstrate the complexity of Babylonian society and the importance of written legal traditions. The Assyrians In northern Mesopotamia, the Assyrians developed one of the ancient world's most powerful empires. Important Assyrian cities included Ashur, Nimrud and Nineveh. The Assyrians became famous for their highly organised armies. They used infantry, cavalry, chariots and specialised siege equipment. Their military campaigns allowed them to control territories stretching across much of the ancient Near East. Assyrian kings constructed enormous palaces decorated with stone reliefs showing battles, royal hunts and religious ceremonies. These artworks were intended to demonstrate the strength and authority of the monarchy. Nineveh and the Library of Ashurbanipal Nineveh became the capital of the Assyrian Empire during the seventh century BC. The city contained magnificent palaces, temples, gardens and defensive walls. King Ashurbanipal established a great collection of clay tablets at Nineveh. Known today as the Library of Ashurbanipal, it contained works on religion, medicine, astronomy, mathematics, literature and history. The library preserved important Mesopotamian texts, including copies of the Epic of Gilgamesh. The discovery of these tablets in modern times greatly increased knowledge of Mesopotamian culture. The Epic of Gilgamesh The Epic of Gilgamesh is one of the oldest surviving works of literature. It tells the story of Gilgamesh, the legendary king of Uruk, and his friendship with a powerful man named Enkidu. The story explores themes including friendship, kingship, courage, death and the search for immortality. After the death of Enkidu, Gilgamesh becomes deeply aware of his own mortality and begins a journey to discover the secret of eternal life. The epic also contains a story of a great flood, which has similarities with later flood traditions from the ancient Near East. Agriculture and Food Agriculture formed the foundation of the Mesopotamian economy. Farmers grew crops including barley, wheat, dates, onions, lentils and other vegetables. Barley was particularly important because it could tolerate the difficult soil conditions found in some parts of southern Mesopotamia. Farmers also raised sheep, goats, cattle and pigs. Sheep provided wool, which became an important material for producing textiles and for international trade. Irrigation required cooperation between communities. Canals had to be constructed, maintained and regularly cleared of mud. Governments and temples often organised the labour needed to maintain these systems. Trade and Commerce Mesopotamia possessed fertile farmland but lacked many important natural resources. Timber, metals and high-quality stone were relatively scarce. As a result, long-distance trade became an essential part of Mesopotamian civilisation. Merchants travelled to regions including Anatolia, Iran, the Persian Gulf and the eastern Mediterranean. Mesopotamian goods such as grain, textiles and manufactured products were exchanged for copper, tin, silver, timber and precious stones. Trade routes connected Mesopotamia with distant civilisations. Archaeological evidence shows that Mesopotamian merchants had commercial connections with the Indus Valley civilisation and regions around the Persian Gulf. Mathematics Mesopotamian scholars made important advances in mathematics. They used a number system based partly on the number sixty. This system has influenced modern measurements of time and angles. The division of an hour into sixty minutes and a minute into sixty seconds reflects this ancient mathematical tradition. A circle's division into 360 degrees is also connected with Mesopotamian mathematical ideas. Mathematics was used for practical purposes such as measuring fields, constructing buildings, calculating taxes and managing trade. Astronomy Mesopotamian scholars carefully observed the night sky. They recorded the movements of the Sun, Moon, planets and stars over long periods of time. Babylonian astronomers became especially skilled at recognising patterns in celestial events. They developed mathematical methods that allowed them to predict certain astronomical phenomena, including lunar eclipses. Astronomy was closely connected with religion and astrology. Mesopotamian scholars believed that unusual events in the heavens could provide signs concerning the future of kings and kingdoms. Medicine Mesopotamian medicine combined practical treatments with religious beliefs. Medical texts describe illnesses, symptoms, herbal remedies and methods of diagnosis. Doctors treated wounds, prepared medicines and attempted to identify physical causes of disease. At the same time, illness was sometimes believed to result from supernatural forces, and rituals or prayers might be used alongside medical treatments. Surviving medical tablets demonstrate that Mesopotamian scholars systematically recorded observations about diseases and treatments. Daily Life Daily life in Mesopotamia depended greatly on a person's social position. Kings, priests and wealthy landowners occupied the highest levels of society. Below them were merchants, scribes, craftsmen, soldiers and farmers. Most people lived in houses constructed from mud brick. Wealthier homes could contain several rooms arranged around a central courtyard. Ordinary families depended heavily on agriculture and local trade. Family life was extremely important. Marriage agreements, inheritance arrangements and property ownership were often regulated by law. Women in Mesopotamia The rights and social position of women varied according to period, city and social class. Women generally lived in societies dominated by men, but they could possess certain legal and economic rights. Some women owned property, managed businesses and participated in trade. Women could also work as textile producers, brewers, farmers, servants and priestesses. Royal and elite women could sometimes exercise considerable political and religious influence, especially as queens, princesses or high-ranking priestesses. Warfare Competition between cities and kingdoms frequently resulted in warfare. Conflicts could involve disputes over farmland, irrigation water, trade routes or political dominance. Mesopotamian armies used weapons including spears, bows, swords, axes and shields. Early armies also employed battle carts, while later empires made extensive use of chariots and cavalry. The Assyrians developed particularly advanced military organisation. They used engineers to construct roads, bridges and siege machines, allowing their armies to campaign across enormous distances. Art and Architecture Mesopotamian artists produced sculptures, reliefs, jewellery, pottery and decorated objects. Many artworks portrayed gods, kings, warriors and religious ceremonies. Because good building stone was scarce in southern Mesopotamia, most structures were constructed from mud bricks. Important buildings were sometimes decorated with glazed bricks, mosaics or carved stone brought from distant regions. Palaces could be enormous complexes containing royal apartments, courtyards, administrative offices, storage rooms and ceremonial halls. The Neo-Babylonian Empire After the collapse of the Assyrian Empire, Babylon again became the centre of a powerful kingdom. The Neo-Babylonian Empire reached its height under King Nebuchadnezzar II during the sixth century BC. Nebuchadnezzar carried out major construction projects in Babylon. The city was protected by enormous walls and contained magnificent temples, palaces and ceremonial roads. The famous Ishtar Gate was decorated with colourful glazed bricks showing lions, bulls and mythical creatures. It formed part of a grand entrance into the city. The Persian Conquest In 539 BC, Babylon was conquered by Cyrus the Great, ruler of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. Mesopotamia became part of a much larger empire that stretched from Central Asia to the Mediterranean. Although independent Mesopotamian kingdoms disappeared, many elements of Mesopotamian culture continued under Persian rule. Babylon remained an important administrative, religious and intellectual centre. The Legacy of Mesopotamia Mesopotamia made contributions to civilisation that continued long after its kingdoms and empires disappeared. Its peoples developed some of the earliest cities, writing systems, organised governments and written legal codes. Mesopotamian scholars made major advances in mathematics, astronomy, medicine and literature. Their techniques of administration and record keeping influenced later states and empires throughout the ancient Near East. The thousands of surviving clay tablets provide an extraordinary record of human life over several millennia. They contain the words of kings, merchants, priests, farmers, students and ordinary families. A Cradle of Civilisation Mesopotamia is often described as one of the cradles of civilisation because many features associated with complex societies appeared there at an exceptionally early date. Cities, monumental architecture, written laws, organised religion, international trade and sophisticated systems of administration all flourished in the region. From the early Sumerian city-states to the empires of Akkad, Babylon and Assyria, Mesopotamian history covers thousands of years of political change and cultural achievement. The civilisation that developed between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers helped shape the history of the ancient world. Its inventions, ideas, stories and institutions became part of a wider cultural heritage that continues to influence the modern world.