Traditional Founding of Rome

According to Roman tradition, the city of Rome was founded in 753 BCE by Romulus, a legendary prince who became the city's first king. The story of Rome's foundation combined mythology, family rivalry, divine ancestry and political symbolism. For later Romans, the tale explained not only how their city began but also why Rome possessed a special destiny among the peoples of the ancient world.

The traditional date of 753 BCE was calculated centuries after the supposed foundation. Ancient historians did not all agree on the exact year, but the date eventually associated with the scholar Marcus Terentius Varro became the most widely accepted Roman chronology. Modern archaeology shows that settlements existed on the hills beside the River Tiber before and during the eighth century BCE, although the development of Rome was almost certainly a gradual process rather than the work of a single founder on one day.

The legendary foundation nevertheless became one of the most powerful stories in Roman culture. Romulus and his twin brother Remus were said to be descendants of the Trojan hero Aeneas and sons of the god Mars. Abandoned beside the Tiber as infants, they survived through divine intervention before eventually attempting to establish a new city. Their rivalry ended with the death of Remus and the rule of Romulus.

Italy in the Eighth Century BCE

When Rome traditionally emerged in the eighth century BCE, the Italian peninsula was home to numerous peoples and cultures.

There was no unified Italian kingdom.

Communities were organised into villages, tribes, towns and regional political groups.

Languages spoken throughout the peninsula included Latin, Etruscan, Oscan, Umbrian and several others.

Greek settlers were also beginning to establish colonies in southern Italy and Sicily.

Latium

Rome developed in a region known as Latium in central western Italy.

Latium was inhabited primarily by Latin-speaking communities.

The landscape contained fertile plains, volcanic hills and access to the Tyrrhenian Sea.

The River Tiber crossed the region and provided an important route between inland Italy and the coast.

Rome's location would eventually give the city major strategic and economic advantages.

The Latin Peoples

The Latins were one of several Italic-speaking peoples living in central Italy.

They occupied numerous small settlements rather than a single unified state.

Latin communities shared aspects of language, religion and culture.

They could cooperate through religious festivals and alliances but also fought one another.

Rome began as one of these Latin communities before gradually becoming the dominant power of the region.

The River Tiber

The Tiber was central to Rome's development.

The river provided water, transportation and access to inland and coastal trade routes.

A natural crossing point near the future city made the area strategically valuable.

Travellers moving north and south through central Italy could cross the river near Rome.

Control of the crossing allowed the settlement to participate in trade and monitor movement through the region.

The Hills of Rome

Ancient Rome developed across a group of hills overlooking the Tiber.

Later tradition famously referred to the Seven Hills of Rome.

These included the Palatine, Capitoline, Aventine, Caelian, Esquiline, Quirinal and Viminal hills.

The hills provided defensible settlement areas above low-lying ground that could become marshy or flooded.

Over time, separate hilltop communities gradually became connected into a larger urban settlement.

The Palatine Hill

The Palatine became particularly important in Rome's foundation traditions.

According to legend, Romulus established his settlement there.

Archaeological excavations have discovered traces of huts and occupation dating to the early Iron Age.

These remains demonstrate that people were living on the Palatine around the period traditionally associated with Rome's foundation.

Centuries later, Roman emperors constructed enormous palaces on the same hill.

Archaeology and the Early Settlement

Archaeology confirms that settlements existed in the area of Rome long before it became a major city.

Small communities occupied several hills during the early Iron Age.

Their inhabitants lived in relatively simple huts constructed from wood, branches, mud and thatch.

Burials and pottery reveal connections with other Latin communities in the surrounding countryside.

The formation of Rome was therefore probably a gradual process in which neighbouring settlements increasingly cooperated and merged.

Rome Before Rome

The location that became Rome had advantages that encouraged continuous occupation.

The Tiber provided communication with the sea while hills offered defence.

Nearby agricultural land could support farming and livestock.

The site also stood close to trade routes carrying salt and other goods through central Italy.

These practical factors probably mattered more to the city's historical development than any single legendary act of foundation.

The Traditional Date of 753 BCE

The date 753 BCE became the conventional year for Rome's foundation in later Roman historical tradition.

Ancient writers calculated the city's age by comparing genealogies, king lists and Greek chronological traditions.

Different scholars proposed different dates.

The chronology associated with Marcus Terentius Varro eventually became especially influential.

Modern historians therefore use 753 BCE as a traditional date rather than a precisely documented historical event.

Marcus Terentius Varro

Varro was a Roman scholar who lived during the first century BCE.

He was one of the most learned writers of the late Roman Republic.

His chronological calculations helped establish 753 BCE as the conventional date of Rome's foundation.

The Roman calendar system later known as ab urbe condita counted years from the supposed founding of the city.

Ab Urbe Condita

The Latin expression ab urbe condita means from the founding of the city.

Roman writers sometimes used the foundation of Rome as a chronological reference point.

The system was never the only way Romans dated events, since years were often identified by the names of serving magistrates.

Nevertheless, the foundation date became an important symbol of Roman historical identity.

The Legend of Romulus and Remus

The most famous Roman foundation story centres on the twin brothers Romulus and Remus.

According to tradition, they were born into a royal family connected with the ancient city of Alba Longa.

Their mother was Rhea Silvia, while their divine father was said to be Mars, the Roman god of war.

The twins were therefore presented as possessing both royal and divine ancestry.

Alba Longa

Roman tradition described Alba Longa as an ancient Latin city founded generations before Rome.

It was said to have been ruled by descendants of Aeneas.

Although the precise historical relationship between Rome and Alba Longa remains uncertain, the legend connected Rome with older Latin traditions.

Alba Longa also provided the setting for the dynastic conflict that supposedly led to the birth of Romulus and Remus.

Numitor

According to the traditional story, Numitor was the rightful king of Alba Longa.

His younger brother Amulius seized the throne and removed Numitor from power.

To prevent Numitor's descendants from challenging him, Amulius attempted to eliminate possible heirs.

This family struggle created the circumstances that eventually led to Rome's foundation.

Amulius

Amulius was portrayed as the usurper who stole the throne of Alba Longa.

He forced Numitor's daughter Rhea Silvia to become a Vestal Virgin.

As a priestess expected to remain unmarried, she was theoretically prevented from producing children who might challenge Amulius.

The plan failed when she became pregnant with the twins Romulus and Remus.

Rhea Silvia

Rhea Silvia was the mother of Romulus and Remus.

Roman tradition claimed that Mars fathered her children.

Different ancient writers told the story in slightly different ways.

By making Mars the twins' father, the legend connected the future city of Rome with the god of warfare and military power.

This ancestry became especially meaningful to later Romans who celebrated their empire's military achievements.

Mars

Mars was one of the most important gods of Roman religion.

He was associated with warfare, military strength and the protection of the Roman people.

He also possessed older connections with agriculture and the fertility of the land.

As the legendary father of Romulus, Mars became directly connected with the origins of Rome.

The Twins Are Condemned

When Amulius learned that Rhea Silvia had given birth to twin sons, he ordered the infants to be killed.

According to the legend, servants were instructed to throw them into the River Tiber.

The river was flooded, preventing them from being carried into the deepest current.

The basket containing the infants came to rest near the riverbank.

Their survival signalled that the twins possessed an extraordinary destiny.

The She-Wolf

The most famous part of the foundation legend describes a she-wolf discovering the abandoned twins.

She allowed Romulus and Remus to drink her milk and protected them.

The image of the wolf nursing the twins became one of the most recognisable symbols of Rome.

Later Roman art repeatedly represented this scene.

The Lupercal

Tradition located the twins' rescue near a cave known as the Lupercal at the foot of the Palatine Hill.

The cave became connected with the Roman festival of the Lupercalia.

The precise relationship between the foundation legend and older religious practices remains uncertain.

Roman myths frequently connected sacred places in the city with stories about its earliest history.

The Woodpecker

Some Roman traditions added another animal to the story of the twins' survival.

A woodpecker was said to have helped feed them.

The bird, like the wolf, possessed associations with Mars.

These details reinforced the idea that divine forces protected the future founder of Rome from infancy.

Faustulus

The twins were eventually discovered by a shepherd named Faustulus.

He carried them home and raised them with his wife.

The brothers grew up among shepherds in the countryside surrounding the future city.

This part of the legend connected Rome's founders with a simple rural lifestyle rather than a luxurious royal court.

Acca Larentia

Faustulus's wife was traditionally named Acca Larentia.

She helped raise Romulus and Remus as her own children.

Later Roman religious traditions also associated a figure named Acca Larentia with fertility and public rituals.

As with many foundation legends, several older religious traditions may have become combined within the story.

The Twins Grow Up

Romulus and Remus were described as strong, courageous and natural leaders.

They participated in disputes involving local shepherds and eventually became involved in a conflict that revealed their true identity.

Remus was captured and brought before Numitor.

Events soon led to the discovery that the twins were Numitor's grandsons.

The Return to Alba Longa

After learning about their royal ancestry, Romulus and Remus joined forces against Amulius.

The usurper was killed.

Numitor was restored to the throne of Alba Longa.

The brothers then decided not to remain there but instead to establish a settlement of their own near the place where they had been rescued as infants.

The Site of the New City

The brothers chose the hills beside the Tiber as the site for their new community.

According to tradition, Romulus preferred the Palatine Hill while Remus favoured the Aventine or another nearby location depending on the version of the story.

The disagreement soon became more serious because both brothers wanted the honour of founding and naming the city.

Augury

The twins decided to seek signs from the gods through augury.

Roman augurs observed birds and other natural signs to determine divine approval.

Remus reportedly saw six vultures, while Romulus later saw twelve.

The brothers disagreed over whether priority or the larger number mattered more.

The religious dispute became a political conflict over who possessed legitimate authority.

Roman Augurs

Augury became an important part of Roman public religion.

Magistrates and commanders sought divine approval before major political or military actions.

The presence of augury in the foundation myth suggested that Rome itself had been established according to sacred religious procedures.

The story therefore connected the city's earliest political authority with the will of the gods.

Romulus Marks the Boundary

Romulus began marking the sacred boundary of his new settlement.

According to tradition, he used a plough drawn by animals to define the city's perimeter.

The boundary possessed religious significance.

Roman cities later maintained a sacred boundary known as the pomerium.

Crossing or violating such a boundary could therefore carry both political and religious meaning.

The Pomerium

The pomerium was the sacred boundary associated with the city of Rome.

It was not identical to the defensive walls.

Instead, it defined a ritual space within which particular religious and political rules applied.

Later Roman rulers could extend the pomerium as a symbolic expression of authority.

The foundation story projected this important institution back to Romulus himself.

The Death of Remus

The brothers' rivalry ended violently.

According to the most famous version, Remus mocked Romulus's new wall and jumped across it.

Romulus or one of his followers killed him.

Romulus then declared that anyone else who crossed his walls in defiance would suffer the same fate.

The murder transformed Rome's foundation into a story containing both sacred destiny and civil violence.

Different Versions of Remus's Death

Ancient writers preserved different accounts of how Remus died.

Some blamed Romulus directly.

Others claimed that a supporter of Romulus struck the fatal blow.

The existence of several versions shows that the legend evolved through generations of oral and written storytelling.

Despite these differences, the basic theme remained the same: only one brother could become founder and king.

Brother Against Brother

The death of Remus carried powerful symbolism for later Romans.

Rome would repeatedly experience internal political conflict and civil war.

Writers could therefore see the murder between the founding brothers as an ominous beginning.

The greatness of Rome was born alongside violence within its own community.

The City Is Named Rome

With Remus dead, Romulus became sole ruler.

The city was traditionally said to have taken its name from him.

Modern linguists and historians cannot confirm that the historical name Roma actually derived from a personal name Romulus.

It is equally possible that the legendary founder's name was created later to explain the already existing name of the city.

Romulus Becomes King

Roman tradition described Romulus as the first king of Rome.

He organised the population, established political institutions and strengthened the settlement.

Later Romans credited him with creating many traditions that actually developed over much longer periods.

Foundation myths frequently assign complex institutions to a single heroic founder.

The Roman Monarchy

Roman tradition remembered seven kings ruling the city between its foundation and the establishment of the Republic.

Romulus was followed by Numa Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Marcius, Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius and Tarquinius Superbus.

The exact historicity of individual reigns is uncertain, especially for the earliest kings.

Archaeology nevertheless confirms that Rome underwent major political and urban development during the monarchy.

The Senate

Romulus was traditionally credited with creating an early Senate.

According to later accounts, he selected leading men from important families to advise him.

These men were known as patres, meaning fathers.

The later Roman aristocracy associated the origins of the patrician class with these early families.

The historical Senate probably developed gradually rather than appearing fully formed under one founder.

Patricians

Later Roman tradition divided society partly between patricians and plebeians.

Patricians were associated with old aristocratic families possessing considerable political and religious status.

Roman writers sometimes traced their privileged position back to families supposedly selected during the reign of Romulus.

The actual development of these social divisions remains more complicated.

The Curiae

Romulus was also traditionally credited with dividing the early Roman population into political and religious groups known as curiae.

These units later played roles in assemblies and religious ceremonies.

As with many institutions attributed to Romulus, their historical development probably occurred gradually.

The legend nevertheless presented the first king as the organiser of Roman civic society.

A Problem of Population

According to the foundation story, Romulus soon faced a practical problem.

The new city needed inhabitants.

A settlement without enough families could not grow into a lasting political community.

Romulus therefore attempted to attract people from surrounding regions.

The Asylum

Tradition claimed that Romulus created a sanctuary or asylum where outsiders could join the new community.

Fugitives, exiles, adventurers and other people were supposedly welcomed.

This story portrayed Rome from its beginning as a society willing to absorb outsiders.

Later Romans often celebrated the idea that their city had grown by incorporating foreign peoples.

Rome and Outsiders

The ability to absorb conquered or neighbouring populations became one of Rome's historical strengths.

Over centuries, the Romans extended varying forms of citizenship and political membership to outsiders.

The foundation legend projected this flexibility back to Romulus.

Rome was portrayed not as a closed ethnic community but as a city created from people of different origins.

The Shortage of Women

The legendary community now had men but supposedly lacked enough women to create families.

Neighbouring communities refused Roman requests for intermarriage.

This rejection led to another famous episode in the foundation tradition.

The Sabine Women

Romulus organised a festival and invited neighbouring peoples, including the Sabines.

During the celebrations, Roman men seized unmarried women from the visitors.

The episode is traditionally known as the Rape of the Sabine Women, using an older meaning of the word rape connected with abduction.

The story nevertheless involves coercive seizure and reflects the violent character of Rome's foundation mythology.

The Sabines

The Sabines were an Italic people living northeast of Rome.

They shared cultural connections with other central Italian communities.

Following the abduction, Sabine families demanded the return of the women.

Conflict eventually broke out between Rome and the Sabines.

Titus Tatius

According to tradition, the Sabine king Titus Tatius led an army against Rome.

The Sabines gained access to the Roman stronghold on the Capitoline Hill.

The resulting battle threatened the survival of the young city.

The conflict was eventually ended through the intervention of the abducted women themselves.

Tarpeia

A famous story connected with the Sabine attack concerns Tarpeia.

She was said to have allowed Sabine warriors access to the Roman citadel in exchange for what they wore on their arms.

Expecting valuable bracelets, she was instead crushed beneath their shields, which were also carried on their arms.

Later Roman tradition associated the Tarpeian Rock with the punishment of traitors.

The Sabine Women Stop the Battle

According to the legend, the women who had been taken from the Sabines now had husbands and children among the Romans.

They entered the battlefield and placed themselves between the opposing armies.

They begged their fathers and husbands to stop fighting.

Their intervention produced reconciliation between the communities.

Romans and Sabines Unite

After peace was made, the Romans and Sabines were said to have united into a single political community.

Romulus and Titus Tatius ruled together for a time.

This episode served as another important Roman story about integration.

Instead of destroying neighbouring peoples completely, Rome could absorb them into its own community.

The Meaning of the Sabine Story

The story of the Sabines may preserve distant memories of interactions between different communities around early Rome.

It should not be treated as a literal historical account without supporting evidence.

Its importance lies partly in what later Romans believed it revealed about their society.

Rome became powerful by incorporating outsiders and transforming former enemies into citizens.

The Capitoline Hill

The Capitoline Hill became one of the most sacred places in Rome.

It overlooked the low valley that later became the Roman Forum.

In later centuries, it contained the great Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus.

Foundation legends associated the hill with several events from the earliest period of Roman history.

The Roman Forum

The valley between the Palatine and Capitoline hills eventually developed into the Roman Forum.

In the earliest settlement period, parts of this low ground were wet and marshy.

Drainage and construction gradually transformed it into a usable public space.

The Forum later became the political, religious and commercial centre of Roman public life.

Early Drainage

The development of Rome required control of water flowing through the valleys between its hills.

Drainage channels gradually made low-lying areas more suitable for roads, markets and public buildings.

Later tradition associated large drainage works with Rome's kings.

The famous Cloaca Maxima developed from these ancient efforts to manage water.

The Cloaca Maxima

The Cloaca Maxima became one of Rome's most important drainage systems.

Its earliest development probably began during the monarchy as channels designed to drain low ground.

Later rebuilding transformed parts of the system into covered sewers.

Improved drainage was essential to the transformation of separate hill settlements into a unified city.

The Early Roman Economy

Early Rome depended heavily upon agriculture and livestock.

Families cultivated grain and managed herds in the surrounding countryside.

Trade along the Tiber brought additional goods into the settlement.

Rome's location gradually allowed it to function as a meeting point between inland communities and Mediterranean commerce.

Salt

Salt was an essential commodity in the ancient world.

It was used for preserving food and supporting livestock.

Routes connecting salt-producing areas near the coast with inland Italy passed through the region around Rome.

Control of these routes may have contributed significantly to the early settlement's economic importance.

The Via Salaria

An ancient road later known as the Via Salaria, or Salt Road, connected the Tiber region with communities farther inland.

The route reflects the long-standing economic importance of salt exchange.

Rome's position near important crossings allowed it to benefit from movement along such routes.

The Tiber Island

The presence of an island in the Tiber near Rome made crossing the river easier.

Travellers could cross in stages rather than attempting to traverse the entire river at once.

This geographical feature increased the strategic value of the area.

Control of a convenient crossing could bring both commercial benefits and military importance.

Trade With the Etruscans

North of Rome lay territories increasingly influenced by the Etruscans.

Etruscan communities became wealthy through agriculture, mining, metalworking and Mediterranean trade.

Early Rome interacted extensively with the Etruscan world.

These contacts influenced Roman religion, architecture, political symbols and engineering.

The Etruscans

The Etruscans became one of the most powerful peoples of central Italy during the early first millennium BCE.

Their civilisation was organised around independent city-states.

Important centres included Veii, Tarquinia and Caere.

Etruscan influence eventually extended into regions north and south of their original heartland.

Rome's later kings were strongly connected with Etruscan culture.

Veii

Veii was an important Etruscan city located only a relatively short distance north of Rome.

The two cities competed for control of territory and trade routes.

Their rivalry continued for centuries.

Rome eventually conquered Veii during the early fourth century BCE, but during the city's earliest history it was a significant regional power.

Greek Influence

Greek settlers established colonies in southern Italy and Sicily during the eighth century BCE.

Greek merchants also travelled throughout the western Mediterranean.

Objects and artistic styles reached central Italy through trade.

Rome therefore developed within a wider Mediterranean world increasingly connected by commerce.

Greek Colonisation

From the eighth century BCE onward, Greek communities founded settlements across the Mediterranean and Black Sea.

Southern Italy became home to numerous Greek cities.

This region later became known as Magna Graecia.

Greek influence introduced new artistic forms, religious ideas and eventually alphabetic writing to many peoples of Italy.

The Alphabet Comes to Italy

The Greek alphabet had itself developed from Phoenician writing.

Greek settlers carried alphabetic scripts into Italy.

Etruscans adapted a form of the Greek alphabet for their own language.

The Romans later adapted the Etruscan alphabetic tradition to write Latin.

The modern Latin alphabet therefore emerged from a long chain of cultural exchange involving Phoenicians, Greeks and Etruscans.

Early Latin

Latin belonged to the Italic branch of the Indo-European language family.

In the eighth century BCE, it was spoken by relatively small communities in Latium.

As Rome expanded, Latin spread across Italy and eventually throughout much of the Roman Empire.

It later developed into the Romance languages and profoundly influenced European vocabulary and scholarship.

Early Roman Religion

The earliest Roman religion grew from Italic traditions while absorbing influences from neighbouring peoples.

Romans worshipped numerous divine powers associated with farming, households, warfare and nature.

Religion was deeply integrated with political life.

Rituals were performed to maintain the pax deorum, the proper relationship between Rome and the gods.

Jupiter

Jupiter became the supreme god of the Roman state.

He was associated with the sky, thunder, oaths and political authority.

Later Roman tradition credited Romulus with establishing aspects of Jupiter's worship.

The great temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill became one of the most important religious centres of Rome.

Quirinus

Quirinus was an ancient Roman god whose origins are not fully understood.

Later Roman tradition identified the deified Romulus with Quirinus.

This allowed the city's legendary founder to continue protecting Rome after his death.

The connection demonstrates how mythology and public religion became intertwined.

Vesta

Vesta was the goddess associated with the hearth and sacred fire.

Her worship became closely connected with the survival of the Roman state.

Priestesses known as Vestal Virgins maintained the sacred flame.

The foundation story's description of Rhea Silvia as a Vestal projected this later Roman religious institution back into the legendary past.

The Vestal Virgins

Vestal Virgins formed one of Rome's most important priestly colleges.

They were selected as young girls and served for many years.

The sacred fire they tended symbolised the continuity and security of Rome.

Although later Roman writers connected Rhea Silvia with this institution, the historical order in which these traditions developed remains uncertain.

The Sacred Fire

Fire held deep symbolic importance in many ancient communities.

A continuously maintained communal flame represented the survival of the household or state.

Rome's sacred fire became a symbol of the city's permanence.

Allowing it to go out was regarded as a dangerous religious failure.

Religious Foundations

Later Romans attributed numerous religious traditions to the city's earliest rulers.

Romulus was portrayed as establishing institutions connected with warfare and political organisation.

His successor Numa Pompilius was traditionally credited with creating many peaceful religious rituals.

This division reflected Roman ideas about the complementary needs of war and religion.

The First Roman Army

Romulus was traditionally credited with organising Rome's earliest military forces.

In reality, early Roman warfare probably resembled that of neighbouring Latin communities.

Warriors were drawn from households and local elites.

Weapons included spears, shields and swords or knives depending upon wealth and period.

Warrior Society

Early central Italy was politically fragmented, and warfare between neighbouring communities was common.

Raids could target livestock, farmland and strategic positions.

Successful military leaders gained prestige.

Rome's later traditions therefore emphasised the warrior character of Romulus and his followers.

Early Fortifications

The hilltop settlements around early Rome possessed natural defensive advantages.

Simple walls, earthworks or wooden defences may have protected important areas.

Later kings constructed more substantial fortifications as the city expanded.

The famous Servian Wall belonged to a much later period than the traditional foundation.

Romulus and Warfare

Roman traditions attributed several wars to Romulus.

He supposedly fought neighbouring communities including the Sabines and cities such as Fidenae and Veii.

These stories may reflect later memories of Rome's early regional rivalries.

They also established the image of Rome as a city that expanded through military success from its very beginning.

Fidenae

Fidenae stood north of Rome near the Tiber.

Its location gave it strategic importance in controlling routes along the river.

Roman tradition describes conflicts with Fidenae during the monarchy and later Republic.

Competition for control of nearby settlements became an important feature of Rome's early expansion.

The Spolia Opima

According to tradition, Romulus personally killed an enemy king named Acron in battle.

He dedicated the defeated ruler's armour to Jupiter.

These spoils were later known as the spolia opima.

Roman tradition regarded the personal defeat of an enemy commander by a Roman commander as an exceptionally rare military honour.

The Temple of Jupiter Feretrius

Romulus was said to have dedicated the spoils of Acron at a shrine of Jupiter Feretrius.

Later Romans considered this one of the city's oldest temples.

The story connected military victory, religion and public commemoration from Rome's legendary beginnings.

Expansion Through Incorporation

Roman tradition repeatedly describes conquered peoples becoming part of Rome.

After defeating neighbouring communities, Romulus sometimes incorporated their inhabitants rather than destroying them completely.

This principle became a major feature of later Roman expansion.

Rome frequently extended different forms of citizenship or alliance to defeated communities.

Citizenship

Roman citizenship eventually became one of the most important institutions of the ancient world.

It provided legal rights and political identity.

During the Republic and Empire, citizenship gradually expanded far beyond the original population of Rome.

The foundation legends portrayed the city as receptive to incorporation from its earliest days.

A Mixed Community

Rome's legendary population included Latins, Sabines, fugitives and people from conquered settlements.

This diversity reflected an important Roman view of their own history.

Roman identity could be political and cultural rather than based solely upon ancestry.

The city grew by absorbing people.

Romulus and Titus Tatius

After the reconciliation with the Sabines, Romulus and Titus Tatius were said to have ruled jointly.

The arrangement represented the political union of two communities.

Later traditions claimed that Tatius died after several years, leaving Romulus as sole ruler again.

Romulus's Later Reign

Roman historians described Romulus continuing to wage wars and strengthen Rome.

His rule was portrayed as energetic and militaristic.

However, ancient writers differed in their judgments of his character.

Some celebrated him as a heroic founder, while others suggested he became increasingly authoritarian.

The Mysterious Death of Romulus

Roman tradition preserved several versions of Romulus's death.

One story claimed that he disappeared during a sudden storm while reviewing the army.

His followers later announced that he had been taken into the heavens and transformed into a god.

Another tradition suspected that senators had killed him and secretly disposed of his body.

Romulus Becomes Quirinus

According to the divine version of the story, Romulus appeared after his disappearance and announced Rome's future greatness.

He was then worshipped as Quirinus.

The transformation completed the legendary founder's journey from mortal prince to king and finally to god.

It also reinforced the belief that Rome possessed divine protection.

Rome's Destiny

Later Romans interpreted their city's expansion as evidence of destiny.

The foundation myth already contained signs that Rome had been chosen for greatness.

Divine ancestry, miraculous survival and sacred augury all supported this idea.

As Rome conquered Italy and eventually the Mediterranean, these stories gained even greater political significance.

Aeneas

Roman tradition eventually connected Romulus with a much older legendary hero, Aeneas.

Aeneas was a Trojan warrior who escaped the destruction of Troy.

According to Roman mythology, he travelled through the Mediterranean and eventually reached Italy.

His descendants established the line that ultimately produced Romulus and Remus.

The Trojan Connection

Connecting Rome with Troy gave the city a place within the prestigious world of Greek heroic mythology.

Rome could claim an ancient ancestry extending back to the legendary Trojan War.

The connection also distinguished Romans from Greeks because their ancestor Aeneas had belonged to the Trojan side of the conflict.

The Fall of Troy

Greek tradition told how a coalition of warriors attacked Troy after the abduction or elopement of Helen.

The city eventually fell after a long siege.

According to later Roman tradition, Aeneas escaped carrying sacred objects and members of his family.

His survival allowed the Trojan line to continue in Italy.

Aeneas in Italy

After years of wandering, Aeneas was said to have reached Latium.

He formed alliances and fought local wars before establishing a new community.

His son Ascanius later founded Alba Longa according to Roman tradition.

Generations later, Romulus and Remus were born from this royal line.

Ascanius

Ascanius was traditionally the son of Aeneas.

Some Roman traditions also called him Iulus.

The powerful Julian family later claimed descent from him.

This genealogy became politically important during the final years of the Roman Republic.

Julius Caesar and the Foundation Myth

Julius Caesar belonged to the gens Julia, a family claiming descent from Iulus.

Because Iulus was said to be the son of Aeneas, the family could also claim descent from the goddess Venus through Aeneas's mother.

Mythical genealogy therefore became a powerful form of political propaganda.

Augustus

The emperor Augustus made especially effective use of Rome's foundation mythology.

He was Julius Caesar's adopted heir and presented his regime as a restoration of Roman greatness.

Stories of Aeneas, Romulus and Rome's divine destiny became important elements of Augustan culture.

Virgil

The poet Virgil produced the most famous literary version of Rome's Trojan ancestry.

His epic poem the Aeneid tells the story of Aeneas's journey from fallen Troy to Italy.

The poem was composed during the reign of Augustus.

It connected Rome's legendary past with the political achievements of the new imperial age.

The Aeneid

The Aeneid presents Roman history as part of a divinely guided destiny.

Aeneas repeatedly sacrifices personal desires in order to fulfil his duty to the future Roman people.

The gods reveal that his descendants will create a great empire.

Romulus and later Roman rulers therefore become parts of a historical mission beginning with Troy.

Livy

The Roman historian Livy also preserved detailed accounts of Rome's foundation.

His history began with Aeneas and continued through the legendary kings.

Livy recognised that stories of the earliest period mixed myth and history.

He nevertheless considered them important expressions of Roman identity and moral values.

Plutarch

The Greek writer Plutarch later composed a biography of Romulus.

He compared different versions of the foundation traditions and discussed alternative stories concerning the founder's origins.

His work demonstrates that ancient writers themselves recognised that Rome's earliest history was uncertain.

Dionysius of Halicarnassus

Dionysius of Halicarnassus wrote extensively about early Rome during the first century BCE.

He attempted to connect Roman traditions with Greek history.

His work preserves many details concerning the monarchy, religious institutions and political customs attributed to the earliest Romans.

Myth and History

The foundation story should not be treated as a straightforward eyewitness account of events in 753 BCE.

Most surviving literary versions were written centuries after the period they describe.

Oral traditions had been reshaped repeatedly.

Later political and religious institutions were projected backward into the age of Romulus.

Modern historians therefore distinguish between the cultural significance of the legend and the archaeological reconstruction of early Rome.

What Archaeology Shows

Archaeology reveals occupation on several Roman hills during the early Iron Age.

Communities living there had houses, cemeteries and local craft traditions.

During the eighth and seventh centuries BCE, settlements became increasingly connected.

Public spaces and communal religious sites developed.

This evidence supports gradual urban formation rather than a city appearing instantly in a single year.

Early Huts

Archaeologists have discovered post holes and other traces of huts on the Palatine Hill.

These houses were relatively simple structures with wooden frames and roofs of organic material.

Urns used in early burials sometimes imitated the shape of contemporary huts.

Together these discoveries provide a picture of life in Rome before monumental stone architecture.

The Hut of Romulus

Ancient Romans believed that a simple hut on the Palatine represented the original home of Romulus.

They preserved or repeatedly restored the structure as a sacred reminder of Rome's humble beginnings.

The contrast between the primitive hut and later imperial palaces was powerful.

Rome's enormous empire supposedly began with a modest dwelling on a hill.

From Village to City

The transformation of Rome probably involved several settlements gradually becoming integrated.

Shared religious festivals and economic exchange may have encouraged cooperation.

As population increased, communal political institutions developed.

Drainage projects eventually allowed low valleys between hills to become public spaces.

By the sixth century BCE, Rome had unmistakably become a substantial city.

The Festival of Septimontium

A Roman festival known as the Septimontium may preserve memories of early communities associated with different hills.

The name has traditionally been linked with a group of hilltop settlements.

Its exact historical significance remains debated.

Nevertheless, it may reflect the process through which separate communities gradually formed a larger urban identity.

Synoecism

Historians sometimes use the Greek-derived term synoecism for the process by which separate settlements unite into one political community.

Early Rome may have developed through a comparable process.

Communities on the Palatine and neighbouring hills gradually shared markets, religious institutions and political leadership.

Rome's historical foundation may therefore have involved generations of integration rather than one founding ceremony.

The Forum Becomes a Centre

As communities united, the low ground between major hills became increasingly important.

The Roman Forum developed into a meeting place for commerce, politics and religion.

Burial grounds were relocated as the area became more intensively used.

Public buildings eventually transformed the valley into the heart of the city.

Early Kingship

Archaeological and comparative evidence suggests that early Rome probably did possess forms of monarchy.

Many communities throughout central Italy were ruled by kings or powerful aristocratic leaders.

The exact powers of Rome's earliest kings remain uncertain.

Later Roman tradition remembered the king as a military commander, judge and chief religious authority.

The Rex

The Latin word rex means king.

The king probably possessed important military and religious responsibilities.

He may have ruled with the advice of leading aristocratic families.

After the monarchy ended, some of the king's religious functions survived in an office known as the rex sacrorum.

Political Institutions Develop

The institutions later associated with the Republic did not appear fully formed in 753 BCE.

The Senate, assemblies, magistracies and citizenship developed over centuries.

Roman tradition often attributed their beginnings to particular kings.

This provided institutions with sacred and historical legitimacy.

The Latin League

Latin communities were connected through religious and political relationships sometimes described as the Latin League.

They shared sanctuaries and could cooperate in warfare.

Rome initially existed as one Latin community among many.

Its later domination of Latium was the result of centuries of conflict and alliance.

Alban Mount

The Alban Hills southeast of Rome contained important religious centres for Latin peoples.

The sanctuary of Jupiter Latiaris on the Alban Mount became associated with festivals shared by Latin communities.

Participation reinforced cultural connections even when individual cities remained politically independent.

Religion and Identity

Shared religious practices helped connect early communities.

Festivals brought people together for sacrifices, feasting and political communication.

Religion therefore contributed to the creation of wider identities beyond individual villages.

Rome later became exceptionally skilled at incorporating foreign cults into its own religious system.

The Etruscan Transformation of Rome

During the seventh and sixth centuries BCE, Rome experienced strong Etruscan cultural influence.

Later tradition associated several Roman kings with Etruscan origins.

Monumental architecture expanded, political institutions became more sophisticated and engineering projects transformed the urban landscape.

Rome's development into a major city therefore occurred after the traditional age of Romulus.

Tarquinius Priscus

Roman tradition described Tarquinius Priscus as an Etruscan-connected king who ruled Rome generations after Romulus.

He was credited with major construction and military projects.

Although the details of his reign remain difficult to verify, archaeological evidence confirms strong Etruscan influence in Rome during this broader period.

Servius Tullius

Servius Tullius was traditionally the sixth king of Rome.

Later Romans credited him with reorganising citizens according to wealth and military obligations.

He was also associated with major fortifications.

Many reforms attributed to him probably developed gradually, but the traditions reflect significant political change during the monarchy.

Tarquinius Superbus

Lucius Tarquinius Superbus was traditionally remembered as Rome's final king.

His authoritarian rule supposedly produced widespread resentment.

After a scandal involving his son Sextus Tarquinius and the noblewoman Lucretia, the monarchy was overthrown.

Roman tradition dated the establishment of the Republic to 509 BCE.

From Monarchy to Republic

The traditional monarchy therefore lasted for roughly two and a half centuries.

During this period Rome changed from a collection of hill settlements into an important central Italian city.

The Republic inherited political, religious and military institutions whose roots stretched back into the monarchical period.

The Foundation Myth Under the Republic

Romans of the Republic continued celebrating Romulus as their founder even though they rejected monarchy.

This created a complicated relationship with his memory.

Romulus could represent courage and civic organisation, but his kingship and killing of Remus could also serve as warnings about excessive personal power.

Romulus and Political Ambition

Roman politicians sometimes compared powerful leaders with Romulus.

The comparison could be flattering because Romulus was the city's founder.

It could also be dangerous because Romans traditionally hated the idea of restoring kingship.

The legend therefore remained politically powerful throughout the Republic.

Augustus and Romulus

When Augustus became Rome's first emperor, he carefully avoided openly calling himself king.

He nevertheless used foundation imagery to connect his new political order with Rome's ancient past.

Romulus offered a model of political foundation, while Aeneas represented duty and divine destiny.

Augustan propaganda combined both traditions.

Rome's Birthday

The Romans traditionally celebrated the city's foundation on 21 April.

The date was connected with the ancient pastoral festival of the Parilia.

The festival originally concerned the purification and protection of sheep and shepherds.

Its connection with Rome's birthday reflects the pastoral character assigned to the city's earliest traditions.

The Parilia

The Parilia was associated with the rural deity Pales.

Shepherds performed purification rituals intended to protect their flocks.

As Roman foundation mythology developed, the festival became closely linked with Romulus's founding of the city.

Rome's birthday therefore combined civic identity with older agricultural religion.

21 April

The traditional date of 21 April remained important throughout Roman history.

Festivals and public celebrations marked the anniversary of the city's foundation.

Roman emperors could use major anniversaries as opportunities for political ceremonies and monumental displays.

Rome's Millennium

In 248 CE, the emperor Philip the Arab celebrated what Romans calculated as the thousandth anniversary of Rome's foundation.

Games and ceremonies marked the event.

The celebration demonstrates how powerful the traditional date of 753 BCE remained a thousand years after the city's supposed founding.

The Wolf as a Roman Symbol

The she-wolf and twins became enduring symbols of Roman identity.

The image appeared on coins, reliefs, statues and other objects.

It could instantly communicate the story of Rome's origins.

Even communities far from Italy used the image after becoming part of the Roman world.

The Capitoline Wolf

One of the most famous artistic representations of the legend is the bronze statue commonly known as the Capitoline Wolf.

The sculpture shows a she-wolf standing while the twins nurse beneath her.

The date of the wolf sculpture itself has been debated by scholars, while the figures of the twins were added during the Renaissance.

Regardless of its precise date, the image became an iconic representation of Rome.

Coins and the Foundation Legend

Roman coins frequently displayed scenes connected with foundation mythology.

Romulus, Remus, the she-wolf and Aeneas could all appear on coin designs.

Coins circulated these images throughout the Roman world.

Mythology therefore became a form of political communication used by the state.

Temples and Foundation Memory

Religious buildings also preserved memories of legendary events.

Shrines marked places where Romans believed important events had occurred.

As the city grew, its physical landscape became filled with monuments connecting contemporary Rome with its mythical past.

Sacred Geography

Romans associated particular caves, hills, trees and springs with legendary figures.

This gave the city a sacred geography.

Walking through Rome meant moving through places connected with stories of Romulus, Numa and other early figures.

Myth was therefore embedded directly into the urban landscape.

The Palatine in Imperial Rome

The legendary home of Romulus later became the preferred residential area of Roman emperors.

Augustus built his residence on the Palatine.

Later emperors constructed increasingly enormous palace complexes there.

The English word palace ultimately derives from the name Palatine.

The hill thus connected Rome's humble legendary founder with its most powerful imperial rulers.

From Hut to Palace

The contrast between Romulus's supposed hut and the imperial palaces became a powerful symbol of Rome's historical journey.

The city had supposedly begun with shepherds living in simple houses.

Centuries later, rulers governed a vast Mediterranean empire from monumental buildings on the same hill.

Romans could interpret this transformation as evidence of divine destiny and civic achievement.

Rome's Strategic Advantages

The historical growth of Rome cannot be explained by mythology alone.

Its geographical position offered important advantages.

The city stood far enough inland to reduce vulnerability to sudden maritime attack but remained connected to the sea through the Tiber.

It controlled an important river crossing and stood near routes connecting northern and southern Italy.

These factors encouraged trade and military expansion.

Access to the Sea

Rome itself was not located directly on the Mediterranean coast.

This provided some protection against raiders.

Yet the Tiber gave the city access to the sea only a short distance away.

Rome eventually developed the harbour settlement of Ostia near the river's mouth.

Ostia

Roman tradition credited one of the later kings, Ancus Marcius, with founding Ostia.

Archaeological evidence suggests that the major urban development of Ostia occurred later.

The settlement eventually became Rome's principal harbour and a vital route for grain and other imports.

Fertile Land

The countryside around Rome could support grain farming and livestock.

A productive agricultural base was essential for any growing ancient city.

Control of surrounding land therefore became a major objective of early Roman warfare.

Expansion across Latium increased both population and food resources.

Rome and the Apennines

Routes from Rome connected the coastal plains with communities living toward the Apennine Mountains.

This allowed goods to move between different ecological regions.

Salt, livestock, timber and agricultural produce circulated through these networks.

Rome's position near these routes encouraged economic growth.

Why Rome Grew

No single reason explains Rome's historical success.

Geography, military organisation, political flexibility and cultural borrowing all contributed.

The Romans learned from Etruscans, Greeks, Latins and other neighbouring peoples.

They also developed systems for incorporating defeated populations.

The foundation legends transformed these historical processes into stories centred on Romulus.

Rome Was Not Founded in Isolation

Rome emerged within a densely connected Italian world.

Its culture contained Latin foundations, Etruscan influences and increasing Greek connections.

Religious practices, political symbols and technologies moved between communities.

Rome's later success was partly based on its ability to absorb and transform these outside influences.

Etruscan Political Symbols

Several symbols later associated strongly with Roman political authority may have been influenced by Etruscan traditions.

These included ceremonial clothing, religious practices and symbols carried before magistrates.

The Romans did not simply preserve a purely Latin culture from 753 BCE onward.

Their society evolved through centuries of interaction.

The Fasces

The fasces consisted of rods bound together, often around an axe.

They became symbols of the authority held by Roman magistrates.

Officials known as lictors carried them during public ceremonies.

The tradition probably had connections with earlier Italian, particularly Etruscan, practices.

The Curule Chair

The curule chair became another symbol of Roman magistracy.

It was a folding seat associated with political authority.

Roman traditions connected several ceremonial practices with the period of the kings and with Etruscan influence.

These examples reveal that Roman government developed through cultural borrowing as well as internal innovation.

Rome and Greek Mythology

As Rome became increasingly connected with the Greek world, its foundation traditions developed accordingly.

Greek writers attempted to place Rome within familiar mythological genealogies.

Different traditions connected the city with Trojan survivors or Greek heroes.

The final dominant narrative combined Aeneas with Romulus and Remus.

Evander

Roman mythology also described an Arcadian Greek hero named Evander living on the future site of Rome before Romulus.

Evander supposedly established a settlement on the Palatine and introduced certain Greek customs.

The story allowed Romans to claim that Greek cultural connections existed in their city even before its official foundation.

Hercules at Rome

Another legend brought the Greek hero Hercules to the future site of Rome.

He was said to have defeated the monster Cacus near the Tiber.

Ancient Romans connected an important altar dedicated to Hercules with this event.

Such myths integrated Rome into the wider heroic geography of the Mediterranean.

The Ara Maxima

The Great Altar of Hercules, known as the Ara Maxima, stood in the area of the Forum Boarium.

Roman tradition claimed it had been established before the city's foundation.

Its location near an important cattle market and river crossing may reflect early commercial connections.

The Forum Boarium

The Forum Boarium developed near the Tiber as an important commercial area associated especially with cattle trading.

Its position near the river crossing made it one of Rome's oldest zones of exchange.

Religious sanctuaries there suggest that commerce and sacred activity developed together from an early period.

The Foundation as a Political Story

Foundation myths often explain why a society's institutions should be respected.

By attributing the Senate, army, religious rituals and civic divisions to Romulus, Romans gave these institutions ancient authority.

Political traditions were presented as part of the city's original design.

The Foundation as a Moral Story

Roman writers also used the foundation legend to discuss morality.

Romulus could represent courage, ambition and leadership.

Remus's death warned about internal division.

The Sabine reconciliation celebrated the ability to transform enemies into fellow citizens.

Different episodes could therefore support different lessons.

Fratricide and Civil War

The killing of Remus became especially powerful during periods of Roman civil war.

Romans repeatedly fought other Romans during the final century of the Republic.

Poets and historians could look back to the murder of Remus as though violence between citizens had been present from the very beginning.

Unity From Conflict

At the same time, the foundation myth repeatedly ends conflicts through integration.

The Romans and Sabines unite.

Foreigners join the new city.

Conquered peoples become members of the community.

The story therefore contains both violence and a strong theme of political incorporation.

The Idea of Roman Exceptionalism

Later Romans believed their city's extraordinary success required explanation.

A settlement that had once controlled only a small area of central Italy eventually ruled much of Europe, North Africa and western Asia.

Foundation myths presented this expansion as part of a destiny established from the city's birth.

The Gods and Rome

Divine involvement appears throughout the foundation tradition.

Mars fathers the twins.

The Tiber preserves them.

Sacred animals protect them.

Augury determines the founder.

Romulus ultimately becomes divine.

The story therefore presents Rome as a community existing under supernatural protection.

Fortune

Roman thinkers frequently interpreted their city's success through the concepts of divine favour, fortune and virtue.

Military victories alone were not enough.

Rome prospered because its people maintained proper relationships with the gods and demonstrated discipline and courage.

The foundation myth provided an early model for these values.

Virtus

The Latin concept of virtus was associated with courage, excellence and particularly military achievement.

Romulus embodied many characteristics later connected with Roman virtus.

He fought enemies, founded institutions and defended the new community.

Later Roman elites sought similar prestige through military service.

Pietas

Pietas referred to proper duty toward gods, family and community.

Aeneas rather than Romulus became the great mythological model of this virtue.

By connecting Aeneas and Romulus within one genealogy, Roman tradition combined duty and martial strength within the story of Rome's origins.

Roman Identity

For Romans, the foundation story explained who they believed themselves to be.

They were descendants of warriors but also a mixed community formed by integration.

They were protected by the gods yet repeatedly tested by conflict.

Their institutions had ancient sacred origins.

Their city possessed a destiny reaching beyond its humble beginnings.

Historical Uncertainty

Modern historians cannot verify the existence of Romulus as an individual founder.

No contemporary written documents describe the establishment of Rome in 753 BCE.

The earliest surviving Roman literature was produced centuries later.

Archaeology provides evidence for settlement and urban development but cannot confirm most specific episodes of the legend.

Could Romulus Have Existed?

It remains possible that traditions concerning Romulus preserve memories of one or more early leaders.

However, separating a historical person from centuries of mythology is extremely difficult.

The name itself may have been derived from Rome rather than the other way around.

Historians therefore usually treat Romulus primarily as a legendary figure.

Archaeological Debates

Discoveries on the Palatine and near the Forum have sometimes been connected with traditional foundation stories.

Dating walls, huts and ritual structures can provide evidence for urban development during the eighth century BCE.

However, linking a particular wall directly with Romulus is much more difficult.

Archaeological interpretation must distinguish between evidence for early settlement and claims about legendary individuals.

Early Walls

Archaeologists have identified defensive or boundary structures dating to Rome's early development.

These discoveries show increasing organisation during roughly the period associated with the foundation tradition.

Whether any particular structure corresponds to the wall described in the Romulus legend remains uncertain.

Burial Evidence

Early cemeteries provide important information about Rome before urban expansion.

Graves contain pottery and personal objects reflecting local Latin traditions.

As the city developed, some burial grounds were abandoned or moved outside increasingly important public areas.

This change provides evidence for the transformation from scattered settlement to organised urban space.

Pottery

Pottery allows archaeologists to date settlement layers and study cultural connections.

Early Roman ceramics resemble materials found elsewhere in Latium.

Later pottery shows increasing interaction with Etruscan and Greek worlds.

These changing styles reveal Rome's gradual integration into wider Mediterranean networks.

A Gradual Foundation

Modern archaeology suggests that Rome did not have one foundation moment comparable to constructing a planned colony.

Instead, several communities gradually became part of a shared urban centre.

The traditional date of 753 BCE nevertheless falls within an important period of increasing settlement and organisation.

The legend may therefore preserve a cultural memory of genuine transformations occurring around the eighth century BCE.

The Importance of 753 BCE

Although the date is traditional rather than securely historical, 753 BCE remains important because Romans themselves believed in it.

The foundation date shaped calendars, festivals and historical writing.

It helped Romans organise their understanding of the past.

Historical beliefs can have enormous cultural importance even when their literal accuracy is uncertain.

The Birth of a Small City

Whatever happened in 753 BCE, early Rome was not yet a great power.

It was a small community within Latium surrounded by rival settlements.

Etruscan cities to the north were often wealthier and more sophisticated.

Greek colonies to the south possessed extensive Mediterranean connections.

Rome's later domination could not have been predicted from its modest beginnings.

Rome's First Centuries

During the centuries after its traditional foundation, Rome expanded gradually.

It fought neighbouring Latin, Sabine and Etruscan communities.

The city developed monumental temples and public spaces.

Political institutions became more complex.

By the end of the sixth century BCE, Rome had become one of the important cities of central Italy.

The Republic Begins

According to Roman tradition, the monarchy ended in 509 BCE.

The Republic replaced the king with annually elected magistrates.

Political authority was divided among several offices and institutions.

Although the Republic rejected kingship, it preserved much of the religious and political heritage associated with the earlier monarchy.

Rome Conquers Latium

During the following centuries, Rome increasingly dominated neighbouring Latin communities.

Wars and alliances gradually expanded Roman territory.

Defeated peoples were often incorporated through carefully structured political relationships.

This strategy reflected the integration theme already celebrated within the foundation legend.

Rome Conquers Italy

By the third century BCE, Rome controlled most of the Italian peninsula.

It had defeated powerful rivals including Samnites, Etruscans and Greek cities.

A network of colonies, alliances and citizenship arrangements tied Italy to Rome.

The small settlement traditionally founded by Romulus had become the centre of an Italian power.

Rome Crosses the Mediterranean

Rome's expansion eventually brought it into conflict with Carthage.

The Punic Wars transformed Rome from an Italian power into a Mediterranean empire.

Later victories brought Greece, North Africa, Spain and large parts of the eastern Mediterranean under Roman control.

The foundation story acquired new significance as Rome's territory expanded.

From City to Empire

By the reign of Augustus, Rome governed territories extending across three continents.

The contrast between this enormous empire and the simple legendary settlement of 753 BCE became central to Roman ideas of historical greatness.

A city founded by abandoned twins had supposedly become ruler of the known world.

The Eternal City

Rome eventually became known as the Eternal City.

The expression reflected confidence in the city's permanence and divine favour.

Foundation myths supported the idea that Rome possessed a unique historical destiny.

Even after the western Roman Empire disappeared, the city itself remained an important political, cultural and religious centre.

Romulus Through History

Romulus continued to appear in Roman art and literature for centuries.

Republican politicians invoked his memory.

Emperors compared themselves with the founder.

Coins and monuments reproduced foundation imagery.

His story survived the ancient world and remained famous through medieval and modern periods.

Remus Through History

Although Romulus became the victorious founder, Remus remained essential to the legend.

Without his death, the story would lose its darker message about rivalry and political power.

He represented the cost associated with Rome's foundation.

The image of the two twins together ultimately became more powerful than the image of Romulus alone.

The She-Wolf Through History

The she-wolf became perhaps the most enduring symbol of Rome's origin.

Her image was reproduced throughout territories ruled by Rome.

Even today, the wolf and twins remain immediately associated with the city.

A myth created in antiquity therefore continues to define Rome's visual identity.

Founding Myths

Rome was not unusual in possessing legendary foundation stories.

Many ancient cities connected their beginnings with gods, heroes or extraordinary events.

Such stories explained social institutions and strengthened communal identity.

What makes Rome's myth remarkable is the enormous historical power later achieved by the society that preserved it.

Myth as Historical Evidence

Myths cannot simply be discarded because they are not literal records.

They reveal how communities understood themselves.

Rome's foundation legend emphasised warfare, divine favour, migration, political integration and sacred boundaries.

These themes tell historians a great deal about Roman values even if Romulus himself cannot be historically verified.

Rome's Mixed Origins

The legend repeatedly emphasised that Rome contained people of different backgrounds.

Trojan ancestry came through Aeneas.

Latin ancestry came through Alba Longa.

Sabines joined the community after conflict.

Outsiders were welcomed through the asylum.

This mixed origin became a powerful explanation for Rome's later ability to absorb conquered peoples.

Rome and Citizenship

Rome's willingness to extend membership eventually distinguished it from many ancient city-states.

Different conquered communities received different legal arrangements.

Some gained citizenship while others became allies.

Over centuries, citizenship expanded across Italy and ultimately throughout the empire.

Later Romans could see this policy foreshadowed in Romulus's legendary asylum.

Sacred Boundaries and Expansion

The legend of Romulus establishing the pomerium demonstrated that Rome was both a physical settlement and a sacred community.

As the city expanded, rulers sometimes extended its ritual boundary.

This connected urban growth with political and religious authority.

Rome's Walls

Walls represented security but also political identity.

Remus's legendary violation of the new wall resulted in death because the boundary symbolised the city itself.

Later Romans took city walls and sacred boundaries extremely seriously.

The foundation story explained this respect through a dramatic act of violence.

Romulus as Lawgiver

Later traditions credited Romulus with establishing laws for the new community.

These claims were part of a broader tendency to attribute institutions to famous founders.

Actual Roman law developed across centuries through custom, legislation and judicial practice.

Nevertheless, portraying Romulus as lawgiver made political order appear as old as the city itself.

Romulus as Military Founder

Romulus was also credited with creating structures that later Romans connected with military organisation.

This suited Rome's historical identity as a society in which military service was deeply connected with citizenship.

The legendary founder was therefore both king and commander.

Romulus as Religious Founder

Religious rituals were likewise attributed to Romulus.

Augury determined his right to establish the city.

Sacred boundaries defined the settlement.

Temples commemorated victories.

Religion therefore legitimised every stage of the foundation story.

The Founder and the Gods

Romulus's supposed divine parentage placed him between ordinary humanity and the gods.

His eventual deification completed that relationship.

Later Roman emperors would also sometimes be declared divine after death.

The story of Romulus therefore provided an ancient precedent for the connection between political leadership and divinity.

Romulus and Imperial Ideology

Roman emperors could present themselves as new founders who restored or renewed the city.

Augustus in particular transformed Rome's political system while claiming to preserve tradition.

The image of a founder offered a powerful model for rulers seeking to legitimise major political change.

Building a New Rome

Several emperors later described their construction programmes as acts of renewal.

Temples were restored, public spaces rebuilt and new monuments erected.

Each transformation could be connected symbolically with Rome's original foundation.

The city was repeatedly imagined as capable of being founded again.

The Foundation in Roman Education

Roman children learned stories of Romulus and Remus as part of their cultural heritage.

Historians, poets and teachers used the legends to explain the city's past.

The stories offered examples of courage, rivalry, duty and political organisation.

Foundation mythology therefore shaped Roman identity from childhood.

Rome's Foundation in Art

Artists represented many scenes from the foundation story.

The wolf nursing the twins was particularly popular.

Other artworks depicted Aeneas escaping Troy, Romulus carrying trophies or the intervention of the Sabine women.

These images transformed historical mythology into public visual culture.

The Foundation on Roman Monuments

Monumental architecture sometimes incorporated references to Rome's origins.

Temples, statues and reliefs connected contemporary political power with legendary history.

By presenting themselves beside founders and gods, Roman leaders could claim continuity with the city's sacred past.

Rome's Foundation Beyond Rome

The foundation myth travelled throughout the empire.

Coins bearing the wolf and twins circulated in distant provinces.

Provincial communities reproduced Roman foundation imagery.

People living thousands of kilometres from Italy therefore became familiar with the legendary beginning of the imperial capital.

A Universal Roman Story

As Roman citizenship spread, the foundation of Rome became more than a local Latin tradition.

It became part of the shared historical mythology of millions of people across the empire.

The story helped connect distant populations symbolically with the city at the centre of imperial government.

The Limits of Tradition

Despite the importance Romans placed on the legend, modern historical reconstruction must remain cautious.

No evidence proves that a king named Romulus founded Rome precisely on 21 April 753 BCE.

No contemporary inscription records the event.

The archaeological evidence instead reveals gradual settlement development.

The traditional account is therefore best understood as a foundation myth built around genuine memories of early Rome.

History Beneath the Myth

The legend may nevertheless contain fragments reflecting historical realities.

Early Rome probably grew through the union of separate communities.

Conflict with Sabine and Etruscan neighbours was historically plausible.

The city did absorb outsiders.

Kings probably ruled during its early development.

Later storytellers may have transformed these processes into the lives and actions of individual legendary figures.

Why 753 BCE Survives

The date survives because it provides a clear symbolic beginning for a city whose real origins were gradual.

Histories are easier to tell when they begin with a founder and a specific moment.

Romulus and 753 BCE gave Romans precisely such a beginning.

The historical city developed slowly, but the legendary city could be born in a single dramatic story.

The Significance of Rome's Foundation

Few traditional foundation dates have become as famous as 753 BCE.

The reason lies not in certainty about the event but in what Rome later became.

A small settlement beside the Tiber eventually conquered Italy, defeated Carthage and dominated the Mediterranean.

Roman government, law, engineering, language and culture influenced enormous areas of the world.

The legendary beginning therefore became the starting point for one of history's most consequential civilisations.

From Shepherds to Conquerors

Roman tradition deliberately portrayed the city's beginnings as modest.

Its founder grew up among shepherds rather than inside a palace.

The first settlement was surrounded by small neighbouring communities rather than vast imperial provinces.

This simplicity made Rome's later rise appear even more extraordinary.

From the Tiber to the Mediterranean

Rome's original world was limited to central Italy.

Centuries of warfare gradually carried Roman power beyond Latium.

Control of Italy led to conflict with Carthage.

Victory in the Punic Wars opened the way toward wider Mediterranean expansion.

The city eventually governed lands its legendary founders could never have imagined.

From Republic to Empire

Rome itself changed dramatically as it expanded.

The monarchy gave way to the Republic.

The Republic eventually collapsed after generations of internal conflict.

Augustus established an imperial political order.

Yet throughout these transformations, Romans continued tracing their city's origin back to Romulus.

The Latin Legacy

The Latin language spoken around early Rome eventually spread across western Europe and parts of North Africa.

It became the language of Roman administration, literature and law.

Latin later developed into Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian and other Romance languages.

It also became a major language of European religion, scholarship and science.

The Roman Legal Legacy

Roman legal traditions developed long after the legendary foundation, but they became one of Rome's most enduring contributions.

Roman concepts of property, contracts and citizenship influenced later European legal systems.

A small Iron Age community eventually created institutions studied thousands of years after Romulus was supposedly born.

The Roman Urban Legacy

Roman engineers and planners constructed roads, aqueducts, bridges, forums and cities throughout the empire.

The urban civilisation that developed from the early settlements beside the Tiber eventually transformed landscapes across Europe and the Mediterranean.

Rome and Christianity

Centuries after Romulus, Rome became one of the most important centres of Christianity.

The city's religious identity changed profoundly after the Roman imperial period.

Yet the ancient foundation stories remained part of its cultural memory.

Pagan and Christian histories therefore became layered within the same urban landscape.

The Eternal Survival of Rome

The Western Roman Empire ended in the fifth century CE, but the city of Rome survived.

Its population and political importance changed dramatically over time.

Nevertheless, Rome remained a major religious and cultural centre.

The city's continued existence strengthened its reputation as the Eternal City.

753 BCE as Symbol

For modern historians, 753 BCE is primarily a conventional marker.

For ancient Romans, however, it represented something much larger.

It marked the beginning of their political community, their sacred landscape and their historical destiny.

The date allowed Romans to imagine a clear point at which their collective story began.

The Legacy of Romulus

Romulus remains one of antiquity's most famous legendary founders.

His story combines themes of divine ancestry, survival, ambition, violence and political organisation.

Whether or not a historical Romulus existed, the figure profoundly influenced Roman ideas about themselves.

He became the personification of the city's beginnings.

The Legacy of Remus

Remus represents the alternative future that never occurred.

His death makes the foundation tragic as well as heroic.

Roman writers could use his fate to reflect upon political rivalry and civil conflict.

The city was founded through unity, but unity emerged only after a devastating struggle between brothers.

The Legacy of the She-Wolf

The wolf nursing the twins became an image recognised throughout the Roman world.

It represented survival against impossible odds.

Two abandoned children protected by nature and the gods became symbols of a city that later claimed dominion over vast territories.

Why the Foundation Story Matters

The traditional founding of Rome matters not because every detail can be proven historically but because the story shaped Roman civilisation.

Romans used it to explain their institutions, religious customs, military character and willingness to incorporate outsiders.

Political leaders repeatedly returned to the legend when they wanted to present themselves as defenders or renewers of Rome.

A Foundation Between Myth and History

The real emergence of Rome took place over generations.

Villages occupied several hills.

Trade developed around the Tiber crossing.

Communities gradually shared religious and political spaces.

Etruscan and Greek influences contributed to urban development.

Out of these processes emerged the historical city.

The Rome of 753 BCE

If a visitor could have stood beside the Tiber around 753 BCE, they would not have seen marble temples, enormous amphitheatres or imperial palaces.

They would have encountered small settlements, simple huts, livestock and agricultural land.

The Forum had not yet become the monumental centre familiar from later Roman history.

The Colosseum, Pantheon and great imperial forums lay almost eight centuries in the future.

A Humble Beginning

The enormous contrast between early Iron Age Rome and the later imperial capital helps explain the enduring appeal of the foundation story.

One of history's greatest cities began in an environment similar to numerous other small communities across central Italy.

Its future greatness was not inevitable.

Centuries of political decisions, military victories, defeats, alliances and cultural exchange transformed it.

The Beginning of Rome's Story

Traditional history placed the beginning of that transformation in 753 BCE.

Romulus stood on the Palatine and marked out the boundaries of his city.

Remus challenged those boundaries and died.

Outsiders entered the new settlement, Sabines became fellow citizens and the first institutions of Roman political life were supposedly created.

The legend provided later Romans with a dramatic explanation for how their extraordinary city had begun.

A Turning Point in Ancient History

From a global perspective, the supposed founding of Rome in 753 BCE would have appeared insignificant at the time.

Assyria was already a great imperial power in the Near East.

Egypt possessed a civilisation more than two thousand years old.

Phoenician merchants sailed across the Mediterranean, while Greek communities were developing new city-states and colonies.

Rome was only one small settlement among many in central Italy.

The Future Was Rome

Yet over the following centuries, that small community would transform the ancient Mediterranean.

Rome would conquer the Etruscans and other Italian peoples, defeat Carthage and absorb the kingdoms of the Hellenistic east.

Its armies would march from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to Mesopotamia.

Roman roads, laws, cities and languages would leave influences lasting thousands of years.

The Legacy of 753 BCE

The traditional date of 753 BCE therefore stands at the beginning of one of history's greatest transformations.

The archaeological city developed gradually, and the legend of Romulus and Remus cannot be read as literal history.

Yet the foundation story captures themes that became central to Rome's identity: military courage, religious duty, political conflict, incorporation of outsiders and belief in a special destiny.

Later Romans looked back across centuries of conquest and saw the Palatine Hill as the place where everything had begun.

Rome Is Founded

According to tradition, on 21 April 753 BCE Romulus established his settlement beside the River Tiber and gave Rome its name.

The historical reality was more complex, emerging from the gradual union of Iron Age communities living across several hills.

Myth and archaeology therefore tell different but complementary stories.

Archaeology reveals how a settlement grew. Myth reveals how Romans understood that growth and the meaning they gave to their city.

From those modest beginnings beside the Tiber arose the civilisation that would eventually dominate the Mediterranean and leave one of the deepest political, linguistic and cultural legacies in world history.